Research and Results
Interested in learning about the research base of the SECOND STEP program? Download the following reviews of research:
- Complete Pre/K Review of Research (PDF)
- Complete Grades 1–3 Review of Research (PDF)
- Complete Grades 4–5 Review of Research (PDF)
- Middle School Summary Review of Research (PDF)
Research Findings
Looking for research findings on the SECOND STEP program for a grant proposal or to bolster buy-in? Read the following summaries of findings, organized by publication date.
Significant Increases in Fifth- and Sixth-Graders’ Social Competence
Holsen, I., Smith, B., & Frey, K. S. (2008). Outcomes of the social competence program SECOND STEP in Norwegian elementary schools. School Psychology International 29(1), 71–88.
Holsen, I., Iversen, A. C., & Smith, B. (2009). Universal social competence programme in school: Does it work for children with low socio-economic background? Advances in School Mental Health Promotion 2(2), 51–60.
Two recent journal articles describe a study of the effects of the Norwegian version of the SECOND STEP program, Steg for Steg, on fifth- and sixth-grade students. The first set of findings from the study showed that the program resulted in significant increases in social competence for both boys and girls across the fifth and sixth grades. The second set of findings showed that low-socioeconomic-status (SES) students reported greater improvement in social competence, school performance, and satisfaction with life, compared to their middle- and upper-SES peers.
Read more about this study.
City-Wide Implementation in Elementary Schools
Cooke, M. B., Ford, J., Levine, J., Bourke, C., Newell, L., & Lapidus, G. (2007). The effects of city-wide implementation of "SECOND STEP" on elementary school students' prosocial and aggressive behaviors. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 28(2), 93–115.
Less Adult Conflict Intervention, Improved Social Competence
Frey, K. S., Nolen, S. B., Edstrom, L. V., & Hirschstein, M. K. (2005). Effects of a school-based social-emotional competence program: Linking children's goals, attributions, and behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 171–200.
Researchers from Committee for Children and the University of Washington collaborated on a study that examined the effectiveness of the SECOND STEP program in helping children resolve conflicts, avoid disputes, and behave more prosocially.
Read more about this study.
Gains in Prosocial Skills and Behavior
Edwards, D., Hunt, M. H., Meyers, J., Grogg, K. R., & Jarrett, O. (2005). Acceptability and student outcomes of a violence prevention curriculum. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 26, 401–418.
Researchers investigated the effectiveness of a version of the SECOND STEP curriculum adapted to include an anti-bullying component on a sample of fourth- and fifth-grade students (N=455). Students who received the SECOND STEP program showed significant gains in knowledge about empathy, anger management, impulse control, and bully-proofing. Report card data also revealed modest gains in prosocial behavior.
Decline in Anxious and Depressed Behavior
Schick, A., & Cierpka, M. (2005). Faustlos: Evaluation of a curriculum to prevent violence in elementary schools. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 11, 157–165.
An experimental study of the Faustlos program (German translation of the SECOND STEP program) was conducted with 716 children ages five to eight.
Read more about this study.
Increased Social Competence
Taub, J. (2002). Evaluation of the SECOND STEP violence prevention program at a rural elementary school. School Psychology Review, 31(2), 186–200.
A quasi-experimental evaluation of the SECOND STEP curriculum was conducted with 87 third- through fifth-grade students in a rural elementary school.
Read more about this study.
Translating Research into Effective Practice
Sprague, J., Walker, H., Golly, A., White, K., Myers, D. R., & Shannon, T. (2001). Translating research into effective practice: The effects of a universal staff and student intervention on indictors of discipline and school safety. Education and Treatment of Children, 24(4), 495–511.
Increased Knowledge of Social Skills
McMahon, S. D., Washburn, J., Felix, E. D., Yakin, J., & Childrey, G. (2000). Violence prevention: Program effects on urban preschool and kindergarten children. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 9, 271–281.
McMahon and colleagues examined the effectiveness of the SECOND STEP program in improving social-skills knowledge and social competence among 109 urban low-income, ethnically diverse children in preschool and kindergarten. Teacher ratings, child reports, and observational data were used to assess children's social-skills knowledge and social competence over a year. After one year of program involvement, children demonstrated increased knowledge of social skills. Results for disruptive or problematic behavior varied by grade and measurement.
Aggression Decreases, Positive Behavior Increases
Grossman, D. C., Neckerman, H. J., Koepsell, T. D., Liu, P. Y., Asher, K. N., Beland, K., & Rivara, F. (1997). Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary school: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277(20), 1605–1611.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention funded a one-year experimental evaluation of the SECOND STEP curriculum to examine its impact on aggression and positive social behavior among second- and third-grade students.
Read more about this study.
Related Chapters and Articles
The following chapter and article feature in-depth information about the SECOND STEP program, tying together both the framework of the program and its evidence base.
Fitzgerald, P. D. & Edstrom, L. V. (2006). SECOND STEP: A violence prevention curriculum. In S. Jimerson & M. Furlong (Eds.), The handbook of school violence and school safety: From research to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
This chapter describes the conceptual foundation and specific goals, content, and practices found in the SECOND STEP program. A summary of evidence of program effectiveness is provided, as is information related to program implementation.
Frey, K. S., Hirschstein, M. K., & Guzzo, B. (2000). SECOND STEP: Preventing aggression by promoting social competence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 102–112.
Theory and findings related to core competencies are described, as are features of lessons, teacher training, and classroom instruction that promote learning and use of specific behavioral skills. Classroom, school, and family contexts that support student use and transfer of skills are also discussed. A review of formative and outcome-evaluation studies of the SECOND STEP program highlights challenges and recommendations related to program implementation.
